History of Wales
The earliest known human remain discovered in modern-day Wales is a Neanderthal jawbone, found in the valley of the River Elwy in North Wales, whose owner lived about 230,000 years ago in the Lower Palaeolithic period. The Red Lady of Paviland, a human skeleton dyed in red ochre, was discovered in 1823 in one of the limestone caves of the Gower Peninsula in Swansea, South Wales. Despite the name, the skeleton is that of a young man who lived about 33,000 years ago at the end of the Upper Paleolithic Period (Old Stone age). He is considered to be the oldest known ceremonial burial in Western Europe. The skeleton was found along with jewellery made from ivory and seashells and a mammoth's skull. Following the last ice age, about 8000 B.C. Wales became roughly the shape it is today and was inhabited by hunter-gatherers . The earliest farming communities are now believed to date from 4000 - 2300 B.C. during the Neolithic Revolution. (The Stone age).
The British Isles from 2300 - 750 B.C. (The Bronze age), were inhabited by a short-dark haired people known as Iberians, who came originally from the Mediterranean lands. Towards the end of this period taller fair-haired Nordic Aryans advanced across western Europe from their land of origin in eastern Europe and western Asia. The Aryans who first came to Britain were the Celts. They came in two waves, starting about 600 B.C. during (The Iron age). Firstly - the Goidelic Celts or Gaels - settled in Ireland and the highlands of Scotland. Secondly - the Brythonic Celts or Britons - settled in England, the Lowlands of Scotland and * Wales. The name Britain is, of course, derived from them.
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The Celts, skilful in ironwork, conquered the Iberian tribes and became a ruling aristocracy; and the subsequent population of Britain was a mixture of the two races. The proportion of Celts and Iberian blood in the mixture is impossible to estimate; but in the more inaccessible parts of Britain – Wales, **Cornwall and the Lowlands of Scotland, the resulting physique and colouring seems predominantly Iberian. The Welsh language comes from that of the Brythonic Celts.
The Celts had a tribal organisation, the basis of their society being ties of kinship; and the tribes were constantly at war with each other. There was some agriculture in the plains but their main occupations hunting, fishing, herding and, above all fighting. Second in importance only to the kings and chiefs were the Druids, the priests and administrators of justice. Knowledgeable in astronomy, the Druids had a monopoly on education, and exerted great influence over tribesmen. Their religion included cruel rites of human sacrifice. The great stronghold of the Druids was Anglesey.
The Celts had a tribal organisation, the basis of their society being ties of kinship; and the tribes were constantly at war with each other. There was some agriculture in the plains but their main occupations hunting, fishing, herding and, above all fighting. Second in importance only to the kings and chiefs were the Druids, the priests and administrators of justice. Knowledgeable in astronomy, the Druids had a monopoly on education, and exerted great influence over tribesmen. Their religion included cruel rites of human sacrifice. The great stronghold of the Druids was Anglesey.
The Romans, who began their conquest of Britain in AD 43, first campaigned in what is now northeast Wales in AD 48 against the Deceangli. They then pursued into the Welsh highlands the British leader Caractacus (or Caradoc), who there organised the resistance of the Silures in the south and the Orodovices in the North. By AD 51 Caractacus was defeated and captured; but many of the hill tribes were still unconquered, and resistance continued, spurred on by the Druids. In AD 60 the Romans drove the Britons of north Wales into Anglesey, defeated them in a great battle, and then massacred the Druids and destroyed their alters and sacred groves.
The Demetae of southwestern Wales seem to have quickly made their peace with the Romans, as there is no indication of war with Rome, and their homeland was not heavily planted with forts nor overlaid with roads. The Demetae would be the only Welsh tribe to emerge from Roman rule with their homeland and tribal name intact. |
It took another twenty years to complete the subjugation of the Silures of the south, and by AD 80 the conquest of Wales was virtually accomplished- virtually because the two western peninsulas and Anglesey were never fully under Roman control.
They remained in close touch with Ireland, which the Romans never invaded. Within these limitations Wales for the next three centuries was part of the Roman Empire. Order was maintained by the usual Roman system of roads and fortresses, the main strongholds being Chester in the north and Caerleon in the south. During these centuries Britain, including Wales, was a peaceful and prosperous Roman province. To Rome, Britain was a source of corn, minerals, and manpower for her legions. The Britons, in return, enjoyed the amenities of Roman civilisation. The Celtic aristocracy became “Romanised”. They copied Roman habits and their system of government, and learned to speak Latin.
Christianity arrived in Wales in the 3rd century. We know that two Christians named Julius and Aaron were martyred at Caerleon. Persecution of Christians ceased in 313. However in the 4th century the Roman Empire went into decline. The last Roman soldiers left Britain in 407. Afterwards the Roman way of life slowly vanished, and Wales split into separate kingdoms. In the 6th century the leading figure in the christian revival was the Briton David later to become patron saint of Wales. Meanwhile the Saxons invaded eastern England. They marched westwards and by the 7th century they had reached the borders of Wales. Their isolation from the rest of Briton was completed by the construction of Offa`s Dyke. This was built in the late 8th century by the Saxon King Offa to confine the Welsh to roughly what is Wales today. The Britons of Wales now had no land link with the Britons of the north (Cumbria) and those in the south-west (Cornwall) Centuries of fighting between Welsh and Saxons followed. Then in the 9th century the Vikings began attacking Wales. However a man named Rhodri ap Merfyn or Rhodri Mawr (Rhodri the Great) became king of Gwynedd in the northeast. In 855 he also became king of Powys in eastern Wales. In 856 he won a great victory over the Danes. However the Vikings continued to attack Wales, at intervals, until the end of the 10th century.
They remained in close touch with Ireland, which the Romans never invaded. Within these limitations Wales for the next three centuries was part of the Roman Empire. Order was maintained by the usual Roman system of roads and fortresses, the main strongholds being Chester in the north and Caerleon in the south. During these centuries Britain, including Wales, was a peaceful and prosperous Roman province. To Rome, Britain was a source of corn, minerals, and manpower for her legions. The Britons, in return, enjoyed the amenities of Roman civilisation. The Celtic aristocracy became “Romanised”. They copied Roman habits and their system of government, and learned to speak Latin.
Christianity arrived in Wales in the 3rd century. We know that two Christians named Julius and Aaron were martyred at Caerleon. Persecution of Christians ceased in 313. However in the 4th century the Roman Empire went into decline. The last Roman soldiers left Britain in 407. Afterwards the Roman way of life slowly vanished, and Wales split into separate kingdoms. In the 6th century the leading figure in the christian revival was the Briton David later to become patron saint of Wales. Meanwhile the Saxons invaded eastern England. They marched westwards and by the 7th century they had reached the borders of Wales. Their isolation from the rest of Briton was completed by the construction of Offa`s Dyke. This was built in the late 8th century by the Saxon King Offa to confine the Welsh to roughly what is Wales today. The Britons of Wales now had no land link with the Britons of the north (Cumbria) and those in the south-west (Cornwall) Centuries of fighting between Welsh and Saxons followed. Then in the 9th century the Vikings began attacking Wales. However a man named Rhodri ap Merfyn or Rhodri Mawr (Rhodri the Great) became king of Gwynedd in the northeast. In 855 he also became king of Powys in eastern Wales. In 856 he won a great victory over the Danes. However the Vikings continued to attack Wales, at intervals, until the end of the 10th century.
When William the Conqueror became king of England in 1066 he did not attempt to conquer Wales. However he did grant land along the English-Welsh border to powerful Norman lords. During the reign of William II (1087-1100) the Normans continued their attacks on Wales. However the Welsh resisted bitterly and most of Wales remained independent. However in those parts of Wales they controlled, the English lords created towns. The most important was Cardiff. They often only had several hundred inhabitants. The English lords also founded many monasteries in Wales. In the mid-13th century one man managed to make himself ruler of most of Wales. In 1255 Llewellyn became king of Gwynedd. The Welsh kingdoms of Powys, Deheubarth and Glamorgan recognized Llewellyn as their lord. In 1267 King Henry III of England made Llewellynt he Prince of Wales.
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However in 1272 Edward I became king of England. He was determined to rule all of Great Britain. Since Llewellyn was his vassal Edward summoned him to do homage. Each time he was summoned Llewellyn made some excuse. In 1276 Edward declared him a rebel and raised an army, which marched into Wales. In 1277 Llewellyn was forced to submit and to surrender some territory to the English. However in 1282 the Welsh rebelled. Llewellyn was killed fighting the English in December 1282 but his brother Dafyd carried on the struggle. However Dafyd was captured in June 1283 and he was executed in October 1283. The rebellion was crushed. Edward was now ruler of Wales. English law was imposed upon the Welsh and Edward built a network of castles to control the people. Alongside the castles Edward created new towns.
In 1294 the Welsh rose in rebellion. However the rebellion was crushed in 1295. Yet in 1301 to try and gain the loyalty of the Welsh Edward made his son, who also called Edward, Prince of Wales. In 1348-49 Wales, like the rest of Europe, was
devastated by the Black Death, which probably killed one third of the population. Then in 1400 Owain Glyn Dwr led another rebellion. Between 1401 and 1403 the rebels steadily advanced, capturing Welsh towns and defeating the English in battle. In 1404 Owain captured the castles at Aberystwyth and Harlech. However in 1405 and 1406 the English began to regain ground. The English recaptured Aberystwyth castle in 1408 and Harlech castle in 1409. Owain and his followers fled to the mountains. They continued to fight until 1413 when Owain Glyn Dwr disappeared from history. In the late 15th century towns and trade in Wales flourished. Much of the countryside also grew more prosperous.
In 1294 the Welsh rose in rebellion. However the rebellion was crushed in 1295. Yet in 1301 to try and gain the loyalty of the Welsh Edward made his son, who also called Edward, Prince of Wales. In 1348-49 Wales, like the rest of Europe, was
devastated by the Black Death, which probably killed one third of the population. Then in 1400 Owain Glyn Dwr led another rebellion. Between 1401 and 1403 the rebels steadily advanced, capturing Welsh towns and defeating the English in battle. In 1404 Owain captured the castles at Aberystwyth and Harlech. However in 1405 and 1406 the English began to regain ground. The English recaptured Aberystwyth castle in 1408 and Harlech castle in 1409. Owain and his followers fled to the mountains. They continued to fight until 1413 when Owain Glyn Dwr disappeared from history. In the late 15th century towns and trade in Wales flourished. Much of the countryside also grew more prosperous.
Then in 1485 Henry Tudor landed with an army at Milford Haven. Marched through Wales into England and after the battle of Bosworth he became king. The 16th century brought religious changes to Wales. In 1517 Martin Luther, a German, started the Reformation. He demanded changes in Christian belief and practices.
In 1534 Henry VIII broke with the pope and made himself head of the church in England and Wales. In 1536 Henry dissolved the smaller monasteries in Wales. The rest were dissolved in 1539. Meanwhile Protestant ideas were spreading through Wales. However although Henry made himself head of the church he was not willing to allow too many changes. In 1542 a Protestant called Thomas Capper was burned to death in Cardiff. |
In 1553 Henry's daughter Mary became queen. She tried to undo the changes in religion and restore the old Catholic religion. During her reign three Protestants were burned to death in Wales. However when Mary died in 1558 her sister Elizabeth became queen. Things changed again. Elizabeth re-introduced Protestantism. In 1588 the Bible was translated into Welsh. While all the religious changes were happening another change took place in Wales. In 1536 the English parliament passed an act of Union. As a result Wales was united with England. The Welsh were given equal citizenship and were allowed to send MPs to parliament. English law came into force throughout Wales.
* 'Wales' is derived from the Anglo-Saxon “Wealas” or “foreigners”.
** The language of Cornwall and the Breton language of Brittany are closely allied to Welsh. In the 6th century, as Anglo-Saxon pressure increased, many Britons from Wales and Cornwall emigrated to Armorica, now renamed Brittany.
*** Chester, (Deva Victrix) in the late 12th century was known by its other and more enduring Welsh name Caerleon, literally "the fortress-city of the legions", a name identical with that of the Roman fortress at the other end of the Welsh Marches at Caerleon, (Isca Augusta).
* 'Wales' is derived from the Anglo-Saxon “Wealas” or “foreigners”.
** The language of Cornwall and the Breton language of Brittany are closely allied to Welsh. In the 6th century, as Anglo-Saxon pressure increased, many Britons from Wales and Cornwall emigrated to Armorica, now renamed Brittany.
*** Chester, (Deva Victrix) in the late 12th century was known by its other and more enduring Welsh name Caerleon, literally "the fortress-city of the legions", a name identical with that of the Roman fortress at the other end of the Welsh Marches at Caerleon, (Isca Augusta).
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e-mail [email protected] Copyright Nick Hedley